#moonbit_dowhy

#Status

#Install

moon add riantr/moonbit_dowhy

#Quick start

import "riantr/moonbit_dowhy"
import "riantr/moonbit_dowhy/datasets"

/// Build a confounded data set: `W0 -> v0`, `W0 -> y`, `v0 -> y`.
let dataset = @datasets.linear_dataset(
  42,
  1000,
  @datasets.LinearConfig::confounded(),
)

/// Build the model. The graph is derived from the semantic roles of the
/// variables when no explicit graph is given.
let model = @moonbit_dowhy.CausalModel::new(
  dataset.frame(),
  dataset.treatments(),
  [dataset.outcome()],
  None,
  dataset.common_causes(),
  dataset.instruments(),
  dataset.effect_modifiers(),
  dataset.frontdoor_variables(),
)

/// Identify the effect with the backdoor criterion.
let estimand = model.identify_effect("backdoor")

/// Estimate the average treatment effect.
let estimate = model.estimate_effect(
  "backdoor.linear_regression",
  1.0,
  0.0,
  "ate",
)

println("ATE: " + estimate.estimate().to_string())
println("95% CI: [" + estimate.confidence_interval_lower().to_string() +
  ", " + estimate.confidence_interval_upper().to_string() + "]")

#Package layout

#Numerical conventions

• variance uses ddof = 0 unless another degree of freedom is asked for; cov uses ddof = 1, like numpy.cov.
• percentile uses the linear interpolation of NumPy.
• average_rank reproduces pandas.Series.rank(ascending=True), so ties get the mean rank -- the propensity score stratification estimator depends on it.
• round_half_even reproduces numpy.round and pandas.Series.round(0).
• The partial correlation of the utils package is the one of the upstream: the covariance of the columns drops the degree of freedom, the pseudo inverse of the covariance matrix cuts its eigenvalues off at 1e-15 of the largest one, the p-value of the Student-t test is rounded to five decimals and the confidence interval of the Fisher z transform to three.
• The conditional mutual information of the upstream reads the names of the columns of the two variables and not their values, so it is the negative entropy of the conditioning columns. The port reproduces that number, because the verdict of the graph refuter of the upstream depends on it.
• The do operator of the upstream returns the mean of the interventional outcomes of the data, which is the value of the outcome under the intervention and not the difference between the two arms. The port returns the same number.
• The propensity score estimators trim the scores of the data only where the upstream trims them: the inverse propensity score weighting estimator trims them to 0.05 and 0.95 and the doubly robust estimator trims them to 0.01 and 0.99, while the matching estimator and the stratification estimator use the raw scores. The trimming groups the scores of many rows together, which moves the matches of the matching estimator and the strata of the stratification estimator: on the hundred thousand rows of the upstream estimator test suite the estimate of the stratification estimator is 10.0001 with the raw scores and 10.308 with the trimmed ones, and the upstream gives 10.0001.
• The number of strata of the propensity score stratification estimator is either given or searched for, the way the upstream searches for it: the search starts with 0.5 * rows / clipping_threshold strata and halves the number until at least half of the strata hold more than clipping_threshold units of both arms. The upstream test file uses the search.
• A rank deficient design is solved with the Moore-Penrose pseudo inverse, the minimum norm solution, like statsmodels.OLS, which uses pinv.
• The residual variance uses df_resid = n - rank.
• The logistic regression minimises sum_i log_loss(y_i, p_i) + 1/(2C) ||w||^2, the convention of sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegression with its default penalty="l2" and C=1.0.
• The generalised linear model is fitted with iteratively reweighted least squares and without a penalty, the convention of statsmodels.api.GLM; the covariance of its coefficients is the pseudo inverse of the weighted Gram matrix, and the dispersion of the binomial and the poisson family is fixed at one.
• The randomised independence test of the gcm package is the randomised independence test of Strobl, Zhang and Visweswaran: the samples are mapped into the feature space of the Gaussian kernel with the Nystroem method, whose precision is the inverse of the median of the distances between the rows, and the p-value is the fraction of the permutations of the rows of the first variable whose statistic is not larger than the statistic of the sample. The upstream draws its randomness from the global generator of numpy and the port draws it from the generator of the utils package, so the two p-values are different numbers that agree on the decision the tests assert.
• The stochastic models of the gcm package are the port of the distributions of dowhy.gcm.stochastic_models. The fit of the beta distribution takes the support of the samples and estimates the two shapes with the method of moments, where the upstream estimates the four parameters with the maximum likelihood; both answers are inside the tolerances of the test of the upstream. The automatic selection of the family of a distribution fits every family the port knows -- the normal, the Laplace, the uniform and the beta -- where the upstream fits every continuous distribution of scipy, and it keeps the first family whose Kullback-Leibler divergence is below the threshold.
• The function of the gcm package that gives the value of a target node from the noise of its ancestors is the port of dowhy.gcm._noise.get_noise_dependent_function: the noise is propagated through the graph of the target node, so that every node that has no path to the target node is left out of it. The approximate branch of the upstream fails on a model whose root node has a fitted distribution, because the view of the graph does not carry the distribution of the root node; the port copies the mechanisms into the view, so its approximate branch works.
• The one-hot encoder drops the first category of every column, like pandas.get_dummies and like the Encoders helper of upstream, and it learns its categories in lexicographic order, like numpy.unique.
• The prediction model of the gcm package fits the way sklearn.linear_model.LinearRegression does: it centres the features and the target before the least squares fit and computes the intercept from the offsets. The centring matters, because the one-hot encoding of a categorical parent and the intercept are collinear and the two conventions spread the same fit over the columns differently. The least squares fit of the utils package has no intercept at all, so the two are not interchangeable.
• The eigen decomposition of the utils package stops when the off-diagonal part of the matrix is negligible against the matrix itself. The criterion is relative, because an absolute one leaves the off-diagonal elements at a size of about 3e-8, and the eigenvalues of a nearly degenerate matrix are then only accurate to about 1e-9. The conditional kernel test of the gcm package regresses on a nearly degenerate kernel matrix, so the criterion is the difference between a p-value that is off by 1.6e-09 and one that agrees with the upstream to 8e-12.
• The parents of a node are taken in the sorted order everywhere a design matrix is built, the way the upstream takes them with dowhy.graph.get_ordered_predecessors. The order of the edges of a graph is no convention of the upstream, and a design matrix whose columns are in the order of the edges fits a different model.
• The two stage regression estimator fits two ordinary least squares models and multiplies their effects: the effect of the treatment on the mediator and the effect of the mediator on the outcome. The upstream computes the confidence interval and the standard error of such an estimate with the generic bootstrap of CausalEstimator; the port reports none for it, because it has no bootstrap for this estimator. On the data set of the upstream test test_dowhy_chapter_7 the estimate of the port and the estimate of the upstream agree to 5e-14, and on the rows of the upstream test test_frontdoor_estimator they agree to 8e-14.
• The synthetic data of the port is drawn with a hand written xorshift64 generator, so that the rows do not depend on the random number implementation of the toolchain. The rows are therefore not the rows of the upstream, which draws them with the generator of numpy. The tests that compare the two implementations run the upstream on the rows of the port: the rows are replicated in Python by _verify/port_linear_dataset.py, and the two implementations agree on the estimate of the two stage regression to 1e-13.
• The default adjustment set of the backdoor search is the set with the fewest instruments, and the set with the fewest variables among those. An instrument of the adjustment set lowers the variance of the treatment variable, which is the reason the upstream prefers it.
• The generalised covariance measure of the gcm package regresses X and Y on Z with the ordinary least squares fit with an intercept, which is the sklearn.linear_model.LinearRegression of the upstream, and it takes the standard deviation of the products of the residuals with ddof = 0, like numpy.std. The upstream takes the prediction model from its caller, so the upstream test of the falsification layer fits a linear regressor, and the p-values of the port and of the upstream agree to 1e-12.
• The conditional expectation of a causal mechanism of the gcm package is the prediction of its model with the noise of zero, because every continuous model of the upstream is a post non-linear model -- the additive noise model of the upstream is a subclass of it. The normalised mean squared error divides the root mean squared error by the standard deviation of the observed values, like the nmse of the upstream, and the F1 measure is the macro average of the measures of the classes, like the f1_score of scikit-learn with average="macro" and zero_division=0.
• The continuous ranked probability score of the gcm package divides the target values by their standard deviation, like the crps of the upstream, and the categorical score is the mean of the scores of the classes, which is the Brier score of the classes. The score of the upstream is estimated from a hundred samples of the conditional, and so is the score of the port.
• The median absolute deviation of the gcm package is the median of the absolute deviations divided by the third quartile of the standard normal distribution, like statsmodels.robust.mad computes it. The divisor is 0.6744897501960817, so the deviation of the port is the one of the upstream and not the plain median of the absolute deviations.
• The bandwidth of the kernel density estimator of the gcm package is the one of Silverman, which is the standard deviation of the samples times the fifth root of four thirds of the inverse of their number, like the upstream. The density is the sum of the Gaussian kernels of the samples divided by the number of the samples and by the bandwidth, which is the density of the KernelDensity of scikit-learn.
• The uniform distribution of the gcm package is the one of scipy.stats.uniform, whose support is the interval that goes from the location to the location plus the scale, so that uniform(0.0, 1.0) is the uniform distribution on [0, 1]. Its fit is the maximum likelihood estimate of scipy as well, so the location is the smallest and the scale the range of the samples.
• The anomaly scorers of the gcm package count the samples of the distribution that are equal to a sample, that are greater than it and that are smaller than it with a binary search over the sorted samples of the distribution, so the counts are the counts of the upstream and the scores are the same numbers. The samples that are not a number are equal to each other and are neither greater nor smaller than any other sample, like the comparisons of numpy count them.
• The attribution of the anomalies of the gcm package takes the noise of the nodes that are in the subset of the set function from the anomaly sample and permutes the noise of the nodes that are not in it, and the value of the subset is the logarithm of the relative frequency of the scores of the distribution that are at least the score of the anomaly sample. The sum of the contributions is therefore the logarithm of the inverse of that relative frequency, which is the anomaly score of the target, and the two agree to 2e-15.
• The unit change layer of the gcm package puts the difference of the intercepts of the two mechanisms into the contribution of the mechanism. The upstream drops it, because the linear model of its fixtures is fitted without an intercept; the port fits its model with one, like the fit of the gcm package does everywhere else, so the contributions of the port would not add up to the change of the output without it. The intercept of the fixtures of the layer is zero up to the rounding of the fit, so the contributions of the port and of the upstream are the same numbers.
• The entropy of the gcm package is the entropy of scipy.stats.entropy, so it is measured in nats and the probabilities are normalised by their sum before the entropy is computed. The digamma function of the utils package is the port of scipy.special.digamma: the port walks up to an argument of ten with the recurrence ψ(x + 1) = ψ(x) + 1 / x and uses the asymptotic expansion of the remainder, which is the expansion scipy uses. For an integer n the two agree to about 2e-15 at n = 10000.
• The estimator of Kozachenko-Leonenko of the gcm package uses the distance from every row of the sample to its k-th nearest neighbour, where k is the square root of the number of the rows. The upstream asks sklearn.neighbors.NearestNeighbors for the k + 1 nearest neighbours of every row and keeps the largest of the distances, which is the distance to the k-th nearest neighbour that is not the row itself. The port computes the same distances: for one column it sorts the values and walks the two sides of every value, and for more columns it compares every pair of rows.
• The placebo of the placebo treatment refuter is built the way the upstream builds it: a continuous treatment becomes the constant zero, a binary treatment becomes a random Bernoulli variable with the probability of a half, and a categorical treatment becomes a random draw of one of the distinct categories of the column. The permuted placebo takes the rows of the treatment and permutes them.
• The significance test of a refutation is the port of dowhy.causal_refuter.test_significance: the automatic test uses the two sided percentile test of the bootstrap for a hundred simulations and more and the test of the normal distribution below that. The bootstrap test counts the estimates that are above the estimate and the half of the ones that are equal to it, and the normal test takes the z-score of the estimate against the mean and the standard deviation of the simulations, with ddof = 0. The two tests are public, because the upstream exposes them as the methods perform_bootstrap_test and perform_normal_distribution_test of the base class of its refuters.
• The bootstrap refuter resamples the rows of the data with replacement and perturbs the variables of interest, the way the upstream does: a numeric column gets a Gaussian noise whose standard deviation is the given fraction of the standard deviation of the column, a column of zeros and ones is flipped and a discrete column gets another category, both with the given probability of the change. The probability of the change is the noise unless it is given, the way the upstream derives it. The data subset refuter samples its subset without replacement, the way the upstream does with data.sample(frac=subset_fraction).
• The propensity score matching estimator matches every treated unit with the control unit whose propensity score is the closest, and a tie is broken with the index of the unit: the first unit with the smallest distance wins. The search is a binary search over the sorted scores, which picks the same unit as a scan over every unit of the other group.
• The logistic regression of the utils package minimises sum_i log_loss(y_i, p_i) + 1/(2C) ||w||², the convention of sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegression with the default penalty="l2" and C=1.0, and it is fitted with the iteratively reweighted least squares. The weighted normal equations of a step are accumulated over the rows of the design matrix, so the fit of a hundred thousand rows needs a matrix of the size of the number of the columns and not one of the size of the square of the number of the rows.
• The program of the rules of the overrule package is solved in its aggregated form: the rows of the program that cover the same covariates are collapsed into one group with a weight, and the program is solved through its dual, because the dual has a feasible basis. The aggregation keeps the value of the program and the weights of the rules, and the shadow price of a group is shared by its rows, so the residuals of the rows of a group are the same number. The upstream solves the program with cvxpy and the solver CLARABEL, and the reference script solves it with the HiGHS solver of scipy instead.
• The propensity model of the overlap region of the overrule package is a logistic regression with a cross fitting of two folds, the way the upstream crosses the folds of its random forest. The two models find the same overlap region on the fixture of the upstream test file: the hundred rows of the cell where the two features are zero.
• The rules of the overrule package are learned with the generator of the port, and the reference samples of the upstream are drawn with the global generator of numpy, so the rules of the port and the rules of the upstream are not always the same rules. The upstream test file accepts a set of equivalent rule sets for the same reason, and the port asserts that the rules are one of them. The program of the overlap rules does not depend on the reference samples, so its value is the same number in the port and in the upstream: 0.00285 on the fixture of the upstream test file.
• The multiply-robust causal change attribution of the gcm package is the port of dowhy.gcm.distribution_change_robust, the estimator of the paper "Multiply-Robust Causal Change Attribution" of Quintas-Martinez, Bahadori, Santiago, Mu, Janzing and Heckerman (ICML 2024). Three details of it decide whether the attribution is the one of the upstream:
  • the functional of the variance is the second moment of the target minus the square of the first moment of the target. The upstream writes it as (theta(y²) - theta(y)) ** 2, but the exponent of Python binds tighter than the subtraction, so the upstream computes theta(y²) - theta(y) ** 2. The port computes the functional of the upstream: the attribution of the variance is about twenty times smaller than the square of the difference would give.
  • only the weights of the last group of the estimator are standardised. The upstream standardises the weights outside its loop over the groups, so the weights of the other groups keep their scale. The port standardises the last weight alone, the way the upstream does.
  • the estimate of the change is the mean of the scores of the estimator, and its standard error is the one of statsmodels.stats.weightstats.DescrStatsW with the weights of one. The standard error is therefore the standard deviation of the scores with ddof = 0 divided by the square root of the number of the scores less one.

• The sales data set of the datasets package is the port of dowhy.datasets.sales_dataset, and four conventions of the upstream decide whether the port reproduces its numbers:
  • the range is a number of days and not a pair of dates. The upstream takes a start date, an end date and a frequency and builds the range with pandas.date_range; the port takes the number of the days and a seed of its own, because it draws its numbers with the generator of the package and not with the global generator of numpy. The Date column holds the date of the day as a string of the form YYYY-MM-DD, where the one of the upstream holds the timestamps.
  • the change of the price is measured against the original price and not against the base price. A day whose price is the original one therefore has no change of the price at all, and the upstream replaces such a change by one, which makes the ratio of the demand and of the change the elasticity of the demand on those days. The port reproduces the replacement, because the relations of the upstream case depend on it: the discount of the second fixture has to sell more units than the first one, because the elasticity answers the smaller price of that fixture.
  • the Poisson draws invert the cumulative distribution. The inversion starts ten standard deviations below the mean, where the probability of the distribution is below 1e-23 and where the mass of the distribution is still representable; a mean below thirty is drawn with the method of Knuth. The means of the frame of the port are within a percent of the ones of the upstream.
  • the days of the shopping events are drawn without replacement, so every day of the range holds at most one event.

• The Gaussian mixture of the gcm package is the port of dowhy.gcm.density_estimators.GaussianMixtureDensityEstimator, whose fit is a variational Bayesian Gaussian mixture. The port fits the same model with the mean field variational update, so a component of the mixture has the same meaning on both sides: a weight, a mean and a covariance. The numbers are not the same numbers: the upstream draws the centres of the components at random and does not seed its generator, so its own fit is not reproducible and its case asserts the length of the result and not its values. The port draws the centres from the data, so its fit is reproducible.

• The attribution of the anomalies without a causal model of the gcm package is the port of dowhy.gcm.anomaly.attribute_anomaly_scores. The set function of the score permutes the rows of the columns that are not in the subset, so that the subset represents an interventional distribution, and it replaces the columns that are in the subset with the values of the anomaly sample. The score of a sample is either the information theoretic score, which is the logarithm of the relative frequency of the scores of the distribution that are at least the score of the anomaly, or the deviation of the score from its expectation, which is the feature relevance of the upstream.
• The what-if queries of the gcm package with the categorical variables and with the discrete data follow the upstream dowhy.gcm.whatif. The class of a categorical target is drawn with a uniform noise on [0, 1], and the class is the first one whose cumulative probability reaches the noise, so the number of the samples that hold the expected class is a random number; the generator of the utils package is seeded, so the number is the same number at every run. The upstream fits the histogram gradient boosting regression on the target of the discrete additive noise model; the port fits the nearest neighbour regression, which is the non-linear model of the port.
• The mechanism of a node of the gcm package can be the model of an equation of the port, which is the relation of the node itself and not a fit of it. The upstream sets such a mechanism to a model of its own, and the port expresses the same model with its equation parser. The difference matters outside of the rows of the training data: a fitted polynomial model of the second degree is the same relation on the rows of the training data, but its prediction at an anomaly sample, which is far outside of them, is off by about 6.6, and that error moves the contribution of the target of the attribution of the anomalies from 9.6 to 4.1.
• The CatBoost encoder of the gcm package is the port of dowhy.gcm.util.catboost_encoder.CatBoostEncoder, and the automatic encoder of the categorical columns is the port of dowhy.gcm.util.general.auto_fit_encoders and of dowhy.gcm.util.general.auto_apply_encoders. Two conventions decide whether the port reproduces its numbers:
  • the value of a category is the mean of the target of its rows and the mean of the target of the whole column, and a category that holds a single row takes the mean of the whole column. This is the equation (1) of the CatBoost paper, which is the equation the upstream implements.
  • the encoding with the target of the rows leaves the row itself out of the mean of its category: the value of a row is the mean of the target of the rows of its category that come before it, smoothed with the mean of the target of the whole column. The upstream computes the same number with a cumulative sum over the rows of the category.

• The categorical data of the kernel based independence test of the gcm package is encoded with the one-hot encoder of sklearn.preprocessing.OneHotEncoder, the way the upstream encodes every matrix of its test on its own: the categories of a column are in lexicographic order and every category becomes a column of its own. The p-values of the port and of the upstream differ by less than 5e-12 on the categorical fixture of the test.

#Deliberate differences from upstream

• The backdoor identifier enumerates its candidate adjustment variables in sorted order. Upstream iterates over a Python set, so its order depends on the hash seed; the sets it returns are the same.
• The frontdoor identifier returns the smallest valid set. Upstream breaks out of its loop after the first match it finds and therefore returns the largest one.
• The efficient backdoor criterion (the Smucler-Sapienza-Rotnitzky min-cut) is ported. It reports a message instead of raising an error, so a search that fails returns an empty adjustment set together with the reason. An empty list of costs means that every variable costs one, the way the upstream assumes it when no costs are given.
• The optimized backdoor search breaks a tie in its hitting set algorithm with the name of the variable. Upstream breaks it with the iteration order of a Python dictionary of strings, and the order of the strings changes between the runs of the interpreter.
• The ID algorithm keeps the variables of a sum in the order of the nodes of the graph. Upstream keeps them in a Python set, so their order changes between the runs of the interpreter.
• The propensity score estimators compute the scores of the data they are asked about with the model and the encoder that were fitted on the training data, so the scores follow the rows of that data. Upstream assigns the scores of the training data to the new rows by position, which mixes two different rows up. The scores of the training data itself are the same either way.
• The generalised linear model estimator reports the analytic confidence interval and standard error of the effect, computed with the delta method from the covariance of the coefficients. Upstream leaves the interval to the bootstrap, because a link function other than the identity makes the effect a function of the coefficients rather than one of them.

• The mediator search enumerates its candidates in sorted order. Upstream iterates over a Python set, so its order depends on the hash seed.
• The two stage regression estimator always fits the two linear regressions the upstream falls back to. Upstream takes its two stage models as arguments, so that a caller can replace them.
• The natural direct effect is not ported. Upstream computes it with a third model, the total effect, and subtracts the natural indirect effect from it.
• The upstream raises an error when the estimand holds more than one treatment variable or more than one outcome variable, and when it holds no mediator variable or no frontdoor variable. The port aborts with the message of the upstream, and CausalEstimator::two_stage_error reports that message before the fit, because MoonBit cannot catch an abort.

• The check of a backdoor set and of a frontdoor set take the algorithm of the upstream as an enumeration, DseparationAlgorithm, instead of the string dseparation_algo: the default algorithm asks for the d-separation of the graph and the naive one asks for every path to be blocked. The default branch of the frontdoor check is the one the upstream takes when the caller names no algorithm, which is the d-separation of the graph rather than the blocking of the directed paths.

• The number of strata of the propensity score stratification estimator is an enumeration, NumStrata, with a case for a given number of strata and a case for the number of strata the upstream searches for. The upstream takes the string "auto" and an integer.
• The estimator test suite and the bootstrap refuter test suite of the port draw their rows with the generator of the port, and the upstream draws its rows with the global generator of numpy, which the fixture of the upstream test suite seeds with zero. The rows of the port are therefore fixed, and the seed of every suite is the one for which the upstream stays inside the tolerances of its own test files on the very same rows. _verify/estimator_suite_reference.py runs the upstream on the rows of the port. Two of the eighteen cases of the estimator suite are decided by the draw: the inverse propensity score weighting estimator with two common causes and the doubly robust estimator with two common causes and a binary outcome are outside the tolerance of the upstream on the rows of the seed 42, and the upstream is outside it as well.
• The estimator test suite of the port asserts the estimates only. The upstream test files also ask for the confidence intervals and for the significance of the estimate, with ten bootstrap simulations for the stratification and the doubly robust estimator; the upstream asserts none of those numbers, and ten simulations of a bootstrap over a hundred thousand rows would multiply the runtime of the suite by an order of magnitude.

• The graph of the model is a DirectedGraph of the graph package, or a string: a GML graph, a DOT graph or the graph of the daggity web site. The upstream also takes a networkx graph, a ProbabilisticCausalModel and the path of a file. The port has no file system and no dynamic import, so the caller reads the file and hands its content over.
• The format of a graph string is recognised the way the upstream recognises it: a string that starts with dag is the graph of the daggity web site, a string that holds graph followed by a bracket is a GML graph and a string that holds graph followed by a brace is a DOT graph. The whitespace between the keyword and the bracket is optional in the upstream, and it is optional here as well.
• The variables of the graph that are not columns of the data and the columns of the data that are not variables of the graph are reported by unobserved_graph_variables and unused_data_variables instead of being warned about. The port has no warning system, and the names of the variables are the names the upstream warns about.
• The summary of the model is returned by summary instead of being printed. The upstream prints it and logs it.
• The effect modifiers of an estimate are the effect modifiers of the graph when the caller names none, the way the upstream does it. The argument is a labelled optional one, so it is written effect_modifier_names=[...] or left out. The key of a conditional estimate is the index of the quantile group of the effect modifier, while the upstream labels a group with the interval of its values.

• The placebo of the placebo treatment refuter is drawn with the generator of the port, which is a hand written xorshift64, and not with the global generator of numpy, so the refuted estimates of the port are not the estimates of the upstream. The behaviour the upstream test asserts is the same: the effect of the placebo is close to zero.
• The kind of the treatment is taken from the column itself, because the frame of the port holds no dtype. A discrete column is a categorical treatment, a numeric column whose values are all zero and one is a binary treatment, and every other numeric column is a continuous one. The upstream takes the kind from the dtype of the column.
• The upstream raises an error when the placebo of an instrumental variable method is not the permuted one. The port aborts with the message of the upstream, because MoonBit cannot catch an error.
• A refuter that ran no simulation has no distribution to test the estimate against, so its p-value is one. The upstream computes the mean of the simulations with numpy, which returns nan for an empty array, so its p-value is nan.
• The variables the bootstrap refuter perturbs are named with an enumeration, RequiredVariables, and not with the bool | int | list of the upstream. The enumeration has a case for every variable of interest, for no variable at all, for a number of them and for a list of names, and a list that names the variables to leave out. The upstream raises an error when a list names both the variables to keep and the variables to leave out; the enumeration cannot express such a list.
• The category branch of the bootstrap refuter of the upstream is broken: it reads a variable that it never defines and it writes the integer zero into the rows it does not change. The port perturbs a discrete column with another category and leaves the rows it does not change alone.
• The dummy outcome refuter takes the list of transformations of the outcome as Transformation values: zero, noise, permute, linear_regression, the k nearest neighbours, a random forest, a neural network, a support vector regressor and a model the caller gives. The default list is [zero, noise(1)], the DEFAULT_TRANSFORMATION of the upstream, so the simulated outcome of the default refutation is zero followed by a normal noise, and not the uniform draw of [0, 1] the port used before 0.0.37.
• The list decides the branch, the way the _has_estimator of the upstream does: a list without an estimator simulates the whole data at once and reports one refutation, a list with one buckets the treatment and reports one refutation per bucket, so refuters.refute_dummy_outcome returns an array. CausalModel::refute_estimate reports the first refutation of the array.
• The buckets of the estimator branch keep the quirk of the upstream: the edges of the cut are the ranges (max - min) of every numeric column of the frame, divided by bucket_size_scale_factor * std of the treatment, in the column order of the frame, rather than the range of the treatment column alone, and they cut the treatment the way pandas.cut does, so a row whose treatment lies at or below the first edge takes part in no bucket. A frame whose ranges do not increase makes the port abort with the message of pandas.cut, bins must increase monotonically.
• The svm of the upstream is the SVR of scikit-learn; the port has a support vector regressor of its own, in the file src/refuters/dummy_outcome_svm.mbt, with the radial basis kernel, the penalty C and the width of the tube of the epsilon insensitive loss of the upstream. Its solver is the one of libsvm, the library scikit-learn uses: the rows are duplicated with the labels +1 and -1, the matrix of the kernel is signed, and two variables are updated at a time until the spread of the signed gradient of the copies falls below the tolerance of scikit-learn. The kernel is computed row by row and never held in memory, so a fit needs the memory of the rows and not the memory of their matrix. The dual of the epsilon insensitive loss is not strictly convex, so two solvers of the same tolerance reach a nearby but not identical point of the tube: the port and scikit-learn agree to 6.9e-8 on the fixture of the reference script _verify/support_vector_machine_reference.py.
• The random_forest of the upstream is the RandomForestRegressor of scikit-learn; the port has a random forest of its own, in the file src/refuters/dummy_outcome_models.mbt, with the hundred trees, the sample of the training rows with replacement and the square root of the number of the features at every split of scikit-learn.
• The neural_network of the upstream is the MLPRegressor of scikit-learn; the port has a network of its own, in the file src/refuters/dummy_outcome_network.mbt, whose loss and whose gradient are the ones of scikit-learn: they agree to 3.6e-15 and to 1.8e-15 on the fixture of the reference script _verify/neural_network_reference.py, the difference of the order of the summations. The optimiser of the port is a limited memory BFGS with the two loop recursion and a backtracking line search, which is the family of the L-BFGS-B of scipy that scikit-learn uses, but the objective of a network with a ReLU activation is not convex, so the two reach a nearby but not identical point of it.
• The transformation list of the upstream replaces the outcome by zero right after the estimator, so the prediction of the estimator is discarded and the dummy outcome is a white noise. The refuted effect is therefore the sampling error of the estimator, and it does not depend on the model that the list names.
• The model of a custom transformation takes the covariates of the training rows, the outcome of the training rows and the covariates of the rows to predict, and returns the two predictions. The upstream takes a callable that returns a fitted estimator, which is then applied to both, because MoonBit has no partial application of a fitted object.
• The known causal effect of the simulated outcome is a function of the treatment column, true_causal_effect, and it defaults to zero for every row, the DEFAULT_TRUE_CAUSAL_EFFECT of the upstream.
• The refuter of the unobserved common cause takes the strength on the treatment and the strength on the outcome separately, as kappa_t and kappa_y, where the port used to take one epsilon for both, and it reports a single refutation rather than the mean of a simulation loop: the upstream draws one confounder and reports one refutation, so the port has no interval to report besides the refuted effect itself. The two kinds of effect are enumerations, ConfoundersEffectOnT and ConfoundersEffectOnY, with the defaults of the upstream: binary_flip on the treatment and linear on the outcome. The binary_flip strength is the probability of a flip and the port reproduces the edges of the upstream, so 0 flips nothing, 0.5 flips half of the rows and 1 flips every row.
• The percent_change_of_confounder argument of the upstream refuter, which infers the two strengths from the observed common causes, is not ported: the strengths are the two arguments of the port. The three ..._range_... cases of the upstream test file are therefore not mirrored either, because they pass a list of strengths and draw a matrix of refutations for a plot. The sensitivity analyzers of the same upstream module (linear-partial-R2, non-parametric-partial-R2 and e-value) are not ported yet.
• The linear sensitivity analysis of an unobserved confounder is ported, and it is a method of the model, refute_linear_sensitivity, because the upstream returns the analyzer of the analysis from its refute_estimate while the port's refute_estimate returns a refutation of the estimate. The analysis reports the partial R2 of the confounder with the treatment and with the outcome, the robustness value of the estimate and the bias adjusted estimate.
• The upstream builds its analyzer without the flag of its refuter, so the flag confounder_increases_estimate of the linear analysis is always True there and the bias always moves the estimate toward zero. The port reproduces that: the flag is an optional argument of the analysis that defaults to true.
• The upstream overwrites the effect under the null hypothesis of the analysis with the share of the estimate the confounder has to remove, so the value the caller gives it never survives. The port does the same.
• The datasets package takes the two noise parameters of the upstream, stddev_treatment_noise and stddev_outcome_noise. Their defaults are the values the port already used, so the fixtures of the port keep their rows.
• The sales data set of the datasets package takes the number of the days of the range and a seed of its own, where the upstream takes a pair of dates and draws its numbers with the global generator of numpy. The Date column of the port holds the date of the day as a string, where the one of the upstream holds the timestamps.

• The propensity model of the overlap region is a logistic regression with a cross fitting of two folds, where upstream fits a random forest with a grid search over its depth, over the minimum size of its leaves and over its number of trees. The two find the same overlap region on the fixture of the upstream test file, and the port has neither a forest nor a grid search.
• The program of the rules is solved by the simplex of the utils package, through the aggregated form of the program, where upstream solves it with cvxpy and the solver CLARABEL. The value of the program and the weights of the rules are the same numbers.
• The reference samples of the support rules are drawn with the generator of the port, which is a hand written xorshift64, and not with the global generator of numpy, so the rules of the support are not always the rules of the upstream. The upstream test file accepts a set of equivalent rule sets for the same reason.
• The refuter of the overlap is a method of the model, refute_assess_overlap, which returns the analyzer of the rules. Upstream returns the analyzer from its refute_estimate, whose result is a refutation of the estimate.

• do_samplers replaces the df.causal.do(...) accessor of the pandas extension with a plain function, because the port has no accessor mechanism. The continuous treatment and the kernel density sampler use a Gaussian conditional density around the least squares fit where upstream uses KDEMultivariateConditional, and the categorical treatment uses the one versus rest logistic regression of upstream. The MCMC sampler is not ported: upstream samples a Bayesian network with PyMC3 and NUTS, and a hand written sampler would quietly change the numbers, so the method reports that it is unavailable instead of returning a wrong answer.
• timeseries keeps the link types of the upstream array representation as their label strings ("-->", "<--", "o-o", "x-x"), because the toolchain cannot construct the variants of an enum of another package. The CSV and DOT readers are not ported, because the library has no file IO; create_graph_from_edges is the data form they feed.
• gcm carries the two settings of dowhy.gcm.config in a Config value that the functions take as an argument, because MoonBit has no mutable global for them to live in, and it runs nothing in parallel.
• gcm detects a categorical input from the numeric shape instead of from the numpy dtype, so a distinct number is a category of the categorical divergence, and auto_estimate_kl_divergence dispatches to it when the caller sets its flag categorical. The flag carries the information the dtype of the upstream would carry. The GaussianMixtureDensityEstimator of the gcm package is the port of the estimator of the upstream, which fits a variational Bayesian mixture; the port fits the same model with the mean field variational update and draws the centres of the components from the data, where the upstream draws them at random. The kernel density estimator is ported exactly.
• gcm draws the folds of the regression based independence test with its own generator instead of numpy's shuffled KFold, so its p-value differs from the upstream's on the same rows, and it regresses on the conditioning variable with the ordinary least squares fit where upstream selects a model automatically. Both make the same decision on the same data.
• gcm takes a frame for the regression based independence test with categorical data, because a matrix of the port holds numbers only, and it one-hot encodes every discrete column of it. Upstream takes an array and encodes the columns whose values are strings. Upstream switches to the CatBoost encoder when the data holds more than seven categories; the port has the CatBoost encoder and the rule of the upstream now, in gcm.auto_encode, but the regression based test keeps the one-hot encoder, which is the encoder the upstream uses for the fixtures of its own tests.
• The upstream marks its categorical independence tests as flaky, because the two models of the F-test have residual sums of squares of the same order in the folds of the case that has to find no dependence, so the decision of that case depends on the folds the generator draws. The port draws its folds with its own generator, so its fixture of the categorical tests holds the 5000 samples of the fixture of the upstream, which is the size at which both make the same decision on every seed. The reference script prints the decision of the upstream on the very rows of the fixture of the port.
• gcm always uses the median trick for the kernel width of the kernel based independence test and always approximates the null distribution with a gamma distribution. Upstream takes the width from the caller (est_width) and can also simulate the null distribution instead of approximating it, which the port does not do. The median trick draws a random subset of at most 1000 rows when there are more rows than that, so the kernel width -- and with it the p-value -- depends on the generator; upstream draws the subset from the global generator of numpy, the port from the generator it is given.
• gcm runs the bootstrap runs of the kernel based independence test one after another and draws their randomness from the generator it is given. Upstream runs them in a process pool with joblib and draws from the global generator of numpy, and its bootstrap_n_jobs parameter has no counterpart.
• gcm encodes the categorical data of the kernel based independence test at the call site, because the matrices of the port hold numbers only. Upstream one-hot encodes every matrix of its test on its own, with the same encoder, and the p-values of the port and of the upstream differ by less than 5e-12 on the categorical fixture of the test.
• gcm estimates the Shapley values of the feature relevance of every sample of the baseline on its own, and it compares the predictions of a randomized subset with the predictions of the baseline repeated for every sample of the background. Upstream estimates the Shapley values of all the samples in one pass over the subsets, and it broadcasts the one prediction of the baseline over the predictions of the background. The two give the same numbers for a set function that does not depend on the sample, and the same numbers in expectation for the others. The prediction method of the port returns one number per row, so the two tests of the upstream that use a classifier -- whose predictions are a probability per class -- have no counterpart.
• gcm draws the noise of the intrinsic causal influence from the generator it is given and not from the global generator of numpy, so the contributions it computes and the contributions the upstream computes are different numbers. What the two share is the relation the upstream test asserts: the contribution of a node is the variance of the noise of that node. On the fixture of the reference script the variance of the target is 5.7182810415575 in both, the upstream contributes 0.772 to X0 and 3.948 to X2, the port 0.856 and 4.176.
• gcm fits a linear regression for the approximate prediction of the intrinsic causal influence of a continuous target, where upstream picks a model with the model selection of dowhy.gcm.auto; the quality of the assignment therefore has no effect on the result. For a categorical target the port makes the same selection as the upstream, with the classifiers of its own zoo.
• gcm propagates the noise of the exact prediction of the intrinsic causal influence through the sub graph of the ancestors of the target node. Upstream propagates it through the whole model, which fails when the model holds a descendant of the target node, because the noise of that descendant is not among the columns of the noise samples.
• The prediction method of the port returns one number per row for a continuous target and one probability per class for a categorical one, the way upstream shapes its predictions, so every test of the upstream that uses a categorical target has a counterpart here. The last one of them has every node of its graph categorical, so the root node of its model has a categorical distribution and the noise of that root node is a category; the layer encodes such a noise term with the one-hot encoder.
• The approximate prediction of the intrinsic causal influence of a categorical target whose ancestors all hold a category is computed with the decision tree of the zoo of the port, where the upstream computes it with the histogram gradient boosting of its own zoo. The relation of that case is a composition of thresholds, which a logistic regression captures poorly; both classifiers are sharp, so the drop of the entropy of the port is the drop of the entropy of the upstream, and the case satisfies the assertions of the upstream test.
• gcm parses the expression of an equation and evaluates it over the rows of the design matrix, where upstream evaluates the text of the equation with the eval of Python. The port knows a fixed set of functions -- abs, acos, asin, atan, ceil, cos, cosh, exp, floor, log, log10, log2, pow, round, sign, sin, sinh, sqrt, tan, tanh and trunc -- where upstream lets an expression call every function of numpy and of scipy.stats. The numbers are the same for the expressions both understand.
• gcm reads the arguments of a noise model as numbers only, where upstream reads them with the literal_eval of Python. The noise models of the port take numbers only.
• gcm fits the parameters of a normal distribution for the parametric() noise model of an equation, where upstream fits the best distribution of scipy.stats to the data.
• gcm controls the false discovery rate with the Benjamini-Hochberg step-up procedure of statsmodels, which is the method the upstream validation uses by default. Upstream passes the name of the method to multipletests, which knows several of them; the port has the one the upstream uses.
• gcm computes the inverse of the regressor of the conditional kernel test with the Gauss-Jordan elimination of the utils package, where upstream computes it with the singular value decomposition of numpy.linalg.pinv. The regressor is nearly singular and its eigenvalues are clustered, so the eigen decomposition of the port pairs them wrongly and the pseudo inverse turns its absolute error into a relative error of 6.6e-06. The elimination solves the system directly and agrees with the upstream to 8e-12.
• gcm always fits a linear regressor for the automatic assignment of a mechanism, so the validation of the invertible model of a non-linear relation rejects the model in the port and does not in upstream, which picks its model by cross validation out of a zoo of estimators and can capture the relation. The validation of a linear relation agrees in both.
• gcm draws a seed for every bootstrap resample and hands it to the estimation function, instead of seeding the global generator of numpy before the call, and its F-test adds the intercept column itself, because the least squares fit of the utils package has none.
• gcm has one zoo of the models: the linear regression, the polynomial regression and the nearest neighbour regression, and the decision tree, the logistic regression and the polynomial logistic regression. Upstream wraps the whole zoo of the scikit-learn estimators and picks one of them by cross validation, so the mechanism that is fitted can be a random forest or a support vector machine; the port fits the models of its own zoo. The nearest neighbour model is the non-linear model of the port, the way the histogram gradient boost model is the non-linear model of the upstream, and the decision tree is the non-linear classifier of the port, the way the histogram gradient boost classifier is the non-linear classifier of the upstream. The two cases of the upstream test file tests/gcm/test_stats.py that fit a histogram gradient boost model are mirrored with the polynomial models of the port, whose relation is the square of the upstream fixture, and the tolerances of the two upstream cases hold.
• gcm compares the linear model with the nearest neighbour model in the test of a linear relationship, where the upstream compares the linear regression with the histogram gradient boosting regression and the logistic regression with the histogram gradient boosting classifier. The decisions agree on the six fixtures of the upstream test file tests/gcm/test_auto.py.
• gcm fits the classifier of more than two classes with one binary logistic regression per class and it normalises the probabilities of the classes, where the upstream fits a multinomial logistic regression. The probabilities of the port are worse for a target of more than two classes, so the selection of the model of such a target picks the polynomial logistic regression of the port where the upstream picks the linear model. The case of the upstream test file tests/gcm/test_auto.py that covers it records the difference.
• gcm draws the randomness of a causal model from an explicit generator instead of the global generator of numpy, so the samples of a model are reproducible.
• gcm has one causal model type. The upstream distinguishes the probabilistic causal model from the structural one, but every mechanism of the port is a functional causal model, so the two are the same here.
• gcm encodes the categorical conditioning variable of the generalised covariance measure itself, with the one-hot encoding of its own encoding layer, where the upstream hands the conditioning variable to the automatic model selection of dowhy.gcm.auto, which encodes it. The two routes agree to about 1e-3 on the fixture of the upstream test file and lead to the same decision: the explicit encoding is how generalised_cov_based_with_categorical is exposed.
• gcm decides whether a column is categorical from the kind of the column of the frame and not from a numpy dtype, because the frame of the port holds no dtype: a discrete column is categorical and a numeric one is not. is_categorical asks whether every column is categorical and has_categorical whether any one of them is. The upstream refuses a categorical input that holds missing values, because only the missing values of a numerical variable are supported; the frame of the port holds no missing value, so there is no such check.
• gcm encodes the discrete parents of a node with the categories the encoder was fitted on and encodes a category it has not seen with zeros, like the OneHotEncoder(handle_unknown="ignore") of upstream; the encoder of dowhy.utils.encoding drops the first category instead, because that is what the upstream helper of the estimators does.
• gcm does not select the distribution of a root node automatically. The upstream compares every continuous family of scipy against the data and keeps the one with the smallest divergence; the port uses the distribution it was given.
• gcm has three parametric noise distributions -- the normal, the Laplace and the uniform -- and the empirical one. Upstream has a parametric distribution of every family of scipy and a Bayesian Gaussian mixture, which the port does not have, because the mixture needs the variational inference of sklearn.mixture.BayesianGaussianMixture.
• gcm keeps an intervention in a map of functions of a single value, not of a numpy array. A node of a causal model holds either a number or a category, so the value of an intervention is a CausalValue that is one of the two. The upstream intervention is a function of an array, so it can change the shape of a column; the port's cannot.
• gcm has one causal query signature: the query of fit_and_compute takes the causal model alone and returns the numbers of the attribution. The upstream query takes any number of further arguments and returns a dictionary, and the upstream bootstrap_sampling alias is a functools.partial; the port has neither, because the confidence_intervals of the port hands the seed of the resample to the estimation function already.
• gcm takes one independence test for the falsification layer, of the type IndependenceTest, whose third argument is the optional conditioning variable. Upstream takes two callables there, one for the marginal test and one for the conditional test; the marginal test of the port is the one that is called without the conditioning variable.
• gcm builds the set of the non-descendants of a node in the order of the graph. Upstream builds it in an arbitrary order, because it iterates over a Python set; the triples of the parental d-separations are the same.
• gcm chooses the pairs of the pairwise dependencies with the generator it is given, and it runs the tests of a validation one after another. Upstream chooses the pairs from the global generator of numpy and runs the tests in a process pool with joblib.
• gcm reports the summaries of the falsification layer in structures with named fields. Upstream reports them in dictionaries that are keyed by the constants of its FalsifyConst enumeration, and it binds the data and the parameters of a method with a partial object; the port passes the methods and the data separately.
• gcm does not plot the result of a falsification. The plotting functions of the upstream are not ported, because the port has no plotting.
• The falsification layer of the gcm package encodes the columns that hold categories with the one-hot encoder, the way the upstream encodes every matrix of its independence test on its own: the categories of a column are in lexicographic order and every category becomes a column of its own. The matrices of the kernel based test of the port hold numbers only, so the encoding happens at the call site of the test.
• gcm exposes data_covers_graph instead of raising when the data is only available for a subset of the nodes of the graph and the caller does not allow it. MoonBit has no exceptions, so the check is a public function and the function that needs it aborts.
• gcm compares the mechanisms of an evaluated model with every baseline it is given. Upstream skips the baseline whose model class is the class of the mechanism, and the port has one regression model and one classification model, so skipping it would leave no baseline at all and the comparison would be vacuous.
• gcm takes the settings of the evaluation of a model in a configuration object and the parts of the model to evaluate in an options object. Upstream takes the parts in the arguments of its evaluate_causal_model.
• gcm has no parameter that limits the number of the samples of the evaluation of a model. Upstream has one, but its code does not use it to take a subset of the data: it permutes the data instead.
• gcm does not plot the histogram of the falsification in the report of the evaluation of a model. The plotting of the upstream is not ported.
• gcm uses the generalised covariance measure as the independence test of the invertibility assumption and of the falsification by default. Upstream uses the kernel based test, which takes a generator and is cubic in the number of the samples; kernel_independence_test builds one, and the test of the invertibility assumption of a node with more than one parent needs it, because the generalised covariance measure needs one dimensional variables only.
• gcm falsifies the graph of a model whose data holds a categorical column: the falsification layer encodes the categorical columns before it builds the design matrix of a test. The p-values of the port and of the upstream agree to 2e-12 on the categorical fixture of the upstream test of the layer, and the tolerance of the assertions of that case is the tolerance of the kernel test of the package, which is 1e-10 relative.
• gcm writes the numbers of the report of the falsification with the text of the number, which is the shortest text that reads the number back. Upstream writes them with two decimals and with one decimal.
• gcm estimates the density of the inverse density scorer with the kernel density estimator of the upstream. Upstream uses the Bayesian Gaussian mixture of the upstream by default, whose fit is not reproducible because the upstream draws the centres of its components at random; the scorer of the port takes the kernel based estimator, whose numbers it can pin down. The mixture itself is ported, in GaussianMixtureDensityEstimator.
• gcm builds its anomaly scorers with a constructor per scorer instead of a class per scorer, because MoonBit has no inheritance. The information theoretic scorer of the port takes the scorer it wraps, like the upstream does.
• gcm counts the samples of the distribution that are equal to a sample, that are greater than it and that are smaller than it with a binary search over the sorted samples of the distribution, where the upstream counts them with a vectorised comparison over the whole distribution. The counts and the scores are the same numbers.
• gcm draws the samples of the anomaly scores of a causal model from the generator it is given. Upstream draws them from the global generator of numpy, so the scores of the port and of the upstream differ on the same rows; they agree on the node with the largest score, which is what the upstream test asserts.
• gcm does not attribute the anomalies of a sample with a scorer that scores several variables at once. The upstream attribute_anomaly_scores takes such a scorer and scores the multivariate samples of the distribution, which needs the density estimator of the upstream; the scorers of the port score one dimensional samples, so the port attributes the anomalies with the attribute_anomalies of the upstream, which reduces the samples of the distribution to the values of the target before it scores them.
• gcm computes the Shapley values of the attribution of one anomaly sample at a time. The upstream computes the values of every sample at once, with a set function that returns an array; the Shapley estimator of the port takes one set function at a time, so the port calls it once per sample. The exact estimator evaluates the same subsets of the players in both, so the contributions are the same numbers.
• gcm has the unit_change dispatcher of the upstream. It picks between the linear and the non-linear attribution with the type of its mechanism, and it attributes the change to the mechanism only when a foreground mechanism is given. The port picks the linear branch when its mechanism has coefficients, which means every model of the port but the nearest neighbour one, because the linear attribution reads the coefficients of the mechanism.
• gcm computes the Shapley values of the unit change of one row at a time. The upstream computes the values of every row at once, with a set function that returns an array; the Shapley estimator of the port takes one set function at a time, so the port calls it once per row. The exact estimator evaluates the same subsets of the players in both, so the contributions are the same numbers.
• gcm has no random forest regressor, so the non-linear attribution of the unit change layer is used with the linear model of the port, and the non-linear branch of the dispatcher is used with the nearest neighbour regression of the port. The upstream test file tests/gcm/test_unit_change.py compares the linear attribution with the non-linear one, and the port compares them as well.
• gcm cannot catch an exception, so the cases of the upstream test files that expect one are ported as predicates: the unit change layer exposes can_evaluate_unit_change_linear and can_evaluate_unit_change_nonlinear, which are the NotFittedError and the AttributeError of the upstream, and the attribution of the unit change aborts when the mechanism of a node has no coefficients.
• gcm estimates the relevance of the parents of a node with a categorical target with the nearest neighbour classifier of one neighbour, while the upstream uses its default classifier, which is the histogram gradient boosting classifier. Both are sharp, so the noise of the mechanism does not change the class of a sample and the relevance of the noise is zero; a soft classifier, like the logistic regression of the port, lets the noise flip the class and the relevance of the noise grows. The upstream and the port also differ in the way they aggregate the samples of the baseline: the upstream evaluates the set function once per subset and averages its values over the samples of the baseline, while the port estimates the Shapley values of every sample on its own and averages them, which is the same thing in expectation, because the Shapley value is linear.
• gcm takes a matrix where the upstream takes a numpy array, because shape_into_2d of the upstream turns every input into a two dimensional matrix anyway. A vector is a matrix with one column.
• gcm computes the distances to the nearest neighbours of a sample with more than one column by comparing every pair of rows, which costs O(n^2 d). The upstream asks sklearn.neighbors.NearestNeighbors, which builds a tree; the distances are the same numbers, and the one column case of the port sorts the values instead, which costs O(n k).
• gcm computes the distance to the k-th nearest neighbour of a sample with one column with a walk over the sorted values, so the Kullback-Leibler divergence of two samples of a few thousand values costs O(n log n) instead of the O(n^2) of the pairwise search. The distances are the same numbers, because the walk takes the nearer of the two sides of the value first.
• gcm draws the folds of the cross validation of the classifier based divergence with the generator it is given, and the upstream draws them with the global generator of numpy. The two estimates therefore differ on the same rows, and they agree to about 1e-3 on the samples of the upstream test file tests/gcm/test_divergence.py. The classifier itself is fitted with the penalty of the upstream, the L2 penalty of sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegression with its default C = 1.0; the penalty is what keeps the fit of a sample with a categorical column stable, because the one-hot encoding of the column and the intercept are collinear.
• gcm computes the entropy of a sample of discrete values by counting the distinct rows, like numpy.unique(x, axis=0). The rows are identified by their values, so two rows that hold the same numbers are the same row.
• gcm keeps the mechanisms and the root distributions of a causal model in the model itself, where the upstream keeps them in the node attributes of the graph. The distribution change layer therefore clones the two models where the upstream clones them, and copies the fitted mechanisms where the upstream relies on the node attributes surviving the subgraph view of the target node. A clone of a mechanism is unfitted, so a model whose mechanisms were cloned has to be fitted again before it can be used.
• gcm exposes the distribution change layer with a configuration value and a result value instead of the return_additional_info flag and the auto_assignment_quality parameter of the upstream. The port always returns the attribution, the change of every mechanism and the two models; the caller assigns the mechanisms itself when it wants to.
• gcm encodes the binary label of the test of the change of a mechanism with a two column one hot matrix, like the OneHotEncoder(handle_unknown="ignore") of the upstream, which keeps every category of the label.
• gcm permutes the rows of the two samples of the test of the change of a mechanism with the generator it is given, and the upstream permutes them with the global generator of numpy. The p-values therefore differ on the same rows, and the decision they lead to is the same.
• gcm takes the measure of the difference of two distributions as a function of two samples, and the measure of the configuration is the Kullback-Leibler divergence of auto_estimate_kl_divergence when the caller does not give one.
• gcm measures the strength of an edge with the difference of the variances of the two distributions of the target, like the upstream does for a continuous target. For a categorical target the upstream measures the Kullback-Leibler divergence of the class probabilities, and the port does the same.
• gcm runs the estimate of the strength of an edge for one edge at a time, while the upstream runs it for every edge in a process pool. The estimate of one edge does not depend on the others, so the strengths are the same numbers.
• gcm has neither a calibrator nor sample weights for the multiply-robust change attribution. The upstream can calibrate the probabilities of its classifier on a calibration set and can weigh the samples; the models of the upstream mostly do not support the weights either, and the port has neither.
• The upstream cannot build a data set with a binary treatment with the numpy of today. Its dowhy.datasets.linear_dataset converts the treatment with numpy.vectorize(convert_to_binary), and convert_to_binary returns an array of one element, which numpy 2 refuses with ValueError: setting anarray element with a sequence. The upstream 0.14 predates numpy 2. Every upstream test file that uses a binary treatment therefore fails in the upstream itself: the test file of the instrumental variable estimator for its eight binary configurations, and the test file of the regression discontinuity estimator for its only configuration. The port draws its rows with its own generator, so the port runs the cases; the reference scripts hand the upstream the rows of the port, so the upstream runs on them as well.
• The upstream test file of the regression discontinuity estimator is broken a second time. The estimator of the upstream keeps the name of the running variable, the threshold and the bandwidth at None when the caller does not give them, and its fit reads data[None], which is a column of the data frame that does not exist. The estimator of the port takes the three values as arguments.
• refuters computes the E-value of an estimate the way the upstream does, and it benchmarks it against the measured confounders the way the upstream does: every measured confounder is dropped, the estimator is refitted and the Observed Covariate E-value of the confounder is reported. The port does not draw the contour plot of the upstream.
• gcm expands the features of its polynomial models the way the upstream does, with the columns of PolynomialFeatures(degree, include_bias=False) in the order of the upstream, but the port expands the design matrix it is given instead of encoding it itself. The upstream fits the encoder of its categorical columns inside the model, so the expansion of the upstream sees the encoded columns; the port encodes before the fit, the way the mechanism of the gcm package does it for every other model.
• gcm splits the rows of the cross-fitting of the multiply-robust change attribution with its own shuffle, and the upstream splits them with the StratifiedKFold of scikit-learn. The two splits differ, so the attribution of the port and the attribution of the upstream are close to each other and not equal to each other: on the ten thousand rows of the upstream test file they agree to 0.004 for the mean and to 0.05 for the variance.
• timeseries reads the temporal graphs of a CSV and of a DOT from the text of the files, because the library has no file system. The upstream reads the files themselves.
• timeseries reads a CSV in its plain form, where the fields are separated by commas and no field is quoted. The upstream reads the file with pandas.read_csv, which understands the quoted fields as well.
• timeseries refuses a row of a CSV whose node names are missing. The upstream names them "nan", the name numpy gives to a missing value.
• timeseries keeps the order of the entries when it merges the entries of one edge of a DOT file. The upstream merges them with a set, whose order is the order of the set of the interpreter, so the two differ when the entries of one edge do not come in the order of their lags. The entries of the upstream test file hold one label per edge, so the two agree there.
• refuters infers the default strength of the confounder of the unobserved common cause refuter the way the upstream does: a logistic regression of the column on the standardised common causes is fitted, and the share of the predictions that flip when one common cause is set to zero is the strength of that common cause. The port and the upstream agree on every number of the fixture, because the reference script hands the rows of the port to the upstream.
• The linear effect of the upstream reads the standard deviation of the column with np.std(t)[0], and the standard deviation of a column is a number and not an array, so the branch raises an IndexError on the numpy of today. The port computes the number that branch means to compute, the correlation of every common cause with the column scaled with its standard deviation.
• The binary_flip effect of the upstream fits a classifier on the column, and a continuous column is refused with a ValueError. The port aborts with a message of the same kind, because MoonBit cannot catch an error. The upstream fits a multinomial model for a column with more levels, and the share of the flips is then the distance between the classes rather than a share, so the port refuses such a column as well.
• The upstream returns the single strength of a range of one number as a number and the range of many numbers as an array; the port returns an array in both cases.
• The upstream runs a matrix of refutations when the inferred strength holds more than one number, and the port has no matrix of refutations: it reports one refutation.
• gcm selects the model of a node of a causal model by cross validation, the way the upstream does, and it evaluates the models of the gcm package instead of the zoo of the scikit-learn estimators of the upstream: the linear and the nearest neighbour regression for the GOOD quality, and the polynomial regression as well for the BETTER quality. The nearest neighbour regression is the non-linear model of the port, the way the histogram gradient boosting regression is the non-linear model of the upstream.
• gcm shuffles the rows of the cross validation of the model selection with the generator of the utils package, whose seed is an argument of the functions. The upstream shuffles them with the global generator of numpy and it does not seed it, so its own selection is not reproducible.
• gcm fits the classifier of more than two classes with one binary logistic regression per class and it normalises the probabilities of the classes. The upstream fits the same classifier with the multinomial solver of scikit-learn.
• gcm takes the experimental flag of the missing values of the upstream, and it stops when the data holds a missing value and the flag is not set, the way the upstream raises. The upstream keeps the rows whose features hold a missing value, because its histogram gradient boosting model reads them; the port has no model that reads them, so it drops the rows that hold a missing value in a feature as well.

• The plotting package draws nothing: MoonBit has neither Graphviz nor matplotlib, so the port computes the attributes the two backends of the upstream compute and writes the attributes of the Graphviz backend as a Graphviz DOT document, which Graphviz reads and draws.
• The upstream keeps the strengths and the colours of a plot in one dictionary, whose keys are the name of a node and the pair of the names of an edge. The port keeps them apart, in a map of the nodes and in a map of the edges, because MoonBit has no type that holds two kinds of keys.
• The upstream takes the strength of an edge from the CAUSAL_STRENGTH attribute of the edge when the caller gave none. The graph of the port holds no attribute on its edges, so the strength of an edge is the one of the caller and an edge the caller gave no strength for has none.
• The upstream writes the bars it has no uncertainty for into the dictionary of the uncertainties of the caller. The port reads the dictionary and never writes into it.
• The upstream places the ticks of the x-axis of a bar plot at the keys of the dictionary of the uncertainties, which are strings, and matplotlib refuses them. The port places them at the bars, in the order of the values.
• The count of the nodes vertically of the upstream is the maximum of the numbers of the layers and of their counts, because it takes the maximum of the pairs of the layer and of the count. The port does the same.
• The upstream writes the binary column of a node of its random graph with numpy.vectorize(convert_to_binary), and the function it vectorizes returns an array of one element instead of a number, so the call fails with the numpy of the version two and the data set of the upstream cannot be built. The port draws the column the way the upstream means it: one Bernoulli variate per row, with the probability of the sigmoid of the value of the row.
• The upstream computes the average treatment effect of a random graph from the two frames of the intervention, and the frames miss the outcome when a treatment is a root of the graph. The upstream raises a KeyError there, and the port reports the effect as None.
• The upstream hashes the key of the result of a conditional independence, and the key holds the list of the variables that are conditioned on, which cannot be hashed. The port keys the results with the text of the two variables and of the variables that are conditioned on.
• The upstream reads the kind of a column of its data from the type of the column, so a column of integers is discrete and a column of floating point numbers is continuous. The port reads the kind of a column from its payload, so a column of text is discrete and a column of numbers is continuous.
• The do operator of the upstream is named do, and do is a reserved word of the toolchain, so the port calls it do_operator. The upstream reads the identifier of the estimator before it is bound when the caller gives no name of a method, and it raises a NameError; the port takes the name of the method. The upstream documents the do operator of the model as an estimate object and returns a number, and the port returns the number.
• The interpreter of the upstream writes the name of the outcome as the list it holds it in, so its sentence holds [['y']]. The port holds one name, so its sentence holds [y].
• The upstream passes the model to the interpreter of an estimate, which reads the estimate from the model, and the model of the upstream holds no estimate, so the upstream raises an AttributeError. The port takes the estimate of the caller.
• Python writes a number with the shortest text that reads it back, and the toolchain writes seventeen digits, so the sentence of the port holds 1.9999297752808973 where the sentence of the upstream holds 1.9999297752809. The two are the same number.
• The upstream draws its randomness from the global generator of numpy, so a data set of the upstream is only reproducible with the seed it was drawn with. The utils package carries the generator of numpy, so the port draws the numbers of the upstream for a seed. The generator of the utils package is the one the port used before, and it is the one the refuters and the gcm package still use, so their numbers are the numbers of the port and not the numbers of the upstream.

#Development

moon check --deny-warn     # a warning is a failure
moon test --deny-warn
moon fmt --check
typos

#License